Volume 2 (April), 2019: 43 – 63. THE CONCEPT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT: A THEORETICAL EXAMINATION
THE CONCEPT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT: A THEORETICAL
EXAMINATION
By
Oluwatobi, O. Adeyemi (PhD)
Department of Local Government Studies
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile- Ife, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
This
paper examined the various theories and conceptual definitions of local
government system. The main objective of the paper
was to examine the fundamental principles guiding the practice of local
government administration both in developed and developing countries.
Methodologically, the paper adopted a qualitative research technique of data
collection through the content analysis of empirical studies conducted by
classical and contemporary scholars who have made outstanding contributions to
the practice of local government systems globally. Some of the theories of
local government examined by the paper include but not limited to; the
citizen-centered principle, Marxist/political economy,
democratic/participatory, efficiency/Services and developmental school of
thoughts. After thorough and careful articulations of the various scholarly
views on local government systems, the paper concluded that, local government
is in best position than the federal government to stimulate initiatives,
inculcate that feeling of national consciousness, encourage drive and
experimentation in people that will bring development, democratic dividend, and
efficient and effective service delivery to the people at the grassroots.
KEY WORDS: Local Government,
Political economy, Democratic-participatory, Efficiency-Services, Developmental,
Citizen-Centres,
INTRODUCTION
Understanding
Local Government as a concept necessitates the proper examination of some
theoretical efforts already made within the context of local government studies
vis-à-vis the functional and institutional relevance of the subject matter in the
political system.
What
was local government supposed to do? Why did it come into existence? Theoretically, what was it objective? Scholars do not have a consensus on this.
Makenzie explicitly stated thus:
There
is no theory of local government. There is no normative general theory from
which we can deduce what local government ought to be; there is no positive
general theory from which we can derived testable hypothesis about what is it
(Ola, 2004).
In
similar vein, Wickmar also observed that, no great authority like Austin, Bentham
or Mill has thought it fit to determine the principle of local government as
distinct from the principle of government in general. Despite this, scholars
have written on theories of local government, the political theories etc. This suggests that, although no generally
accepted theory exists, but the topic is worth probing. Indeed the existing literatures provide
sufficient and suitable grounds for preparatory effort towards building a
theory of local government (Ola 2004). This study is therefore an attempt to
situate local government within the context of theoretical disposition.
Against this analytical background therefore,
this work examines the theories of local government system and in achieving
this stated objective, the discourse begins with the introduction, conceptual
framework, theoretical examination of local government system and conclusion.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT: AN ATTEMPT AT CONCEPTUALISATION
Local governments have operated under various nomenclatures as rural
government, urban councils, local authorities, district councils, town
councils, municipal councils or local council development areas (Our Reporter
2014).
However,
the concept is as old as the history of humanity, only recently has it entered
the broad discourse in the academic and practice literature (Shah, 2006:2).
This concept has created excitement within the scholarship and practicing world
of administration. It has attracted the attention of many scholars within the
academia who have seriously analyzed and dug deep into the meaning, genesis and
the need for its existence within all political arrangement of the world
(Akindele, et al, 1997:12). Therefore, there is no unanimous acceptable
definition among the scholars on the definition of local government.
As a concept
and one of the vertical or institutional arms of the federal political
structure, it has attracted attention of many scholars within the academia. These
scholars have in varying degree of specificity analysed the meaning and genesis
of local government. They have in process highlighted the need for the infinite
existence of this arm of government within the anatomy of all federal political
system worlds over (Akindele, 1995:141). According to Abubakar (1993:1):
Some
form of local government exists in each country the world-over. Even though
they may differ in such distinguishing features as; constitutional status,
historical experiences, structure and organisation, as well as in the scope of
their statutory, delegated or devolved responsibilities and functions among
others, local government are consensually regarded as
governmental/administrative units closet to the people, or in more general
parlance, the grassroots. Invariably, therefore, they act as veritable agents
of local services delivery, mobilisers of community based human and material
resources, and organisers of local initiatives in responding to a wide variety
of local needs and aspirations. Importantly also, local governments provide the
basic structures and conditions for grassroots participation in the democratic
process.
Quoting
from Akindele, et al (1997:12) the definition of local governments has been
further reinforced by Rtd. Major General Adeyinka Adebayo when he stated that:
Local
government is an essential instrument of National or State Government for the
performance of certain basis services which could be best be administered
locally on the intimate knowledge of the needs, conditions and peculiarities of
the areas concerned. A local government
unites people in a defined area in a common organization whose functions are
essentially complementary to those of the central government and in the
interest of the local residents for the satisfaction of common community
needs. As government, is the means by which
the common problems and needs of community constituting a country are
economically and effectively catered for, so long government is the means by
which a local community satisfies jointly its common problems and needs which
world have been difficult of solution by individual.
Contributing further to the discourse, a
more encompassing definition of local government and the one that captures the
relevant indices of local government is contained in 1976 Guideline for Local Government Reform.
According to the Reform, Local government is:
Government
at the local level exercised through representative council, established by law
to exercise powers within defined areas. These powers should give the council
substantial control over local affairs (including staffing) and institutional
and financial powers to initiate and direct the provision of service and to
determine and implement projects so as to compliment the activities of the
state and federal government in their areas, and ensure, through devolution of these functions to these councils and through
the active participation of the people and their traditional institutions, that
local initiative and response to local needs and conditions are maximized (FGN, 1976)
On this same premise, Shah
(2006:1-2) defined
local government as:
A
specific institutions or entities created by national constitutions (Brazil,
Denmark, France, India, Italy, Japan, Sweden), by state constitutions
(Australia, the United States), by ordinary legislation of a higher level of
central government (New Zealand, the United Kingdom, most countries), or by
executive order (China) to deliver a range of specific services to a relatively
small geo-graphically delineated area.
Local governance is a broader concept and is defined as the formulation
and execution of collective action at the local level. Thus, it encompasses the
direct and indirect roles of formal institutions of local government and
government hierarchies, as well as the roles of informal norms, networks,
community organizations, and neighbourhood associations in pursuing collective
action by defining the framework for citizen-citizen and citizen-state
interactions, collective decision making, and delivery of local public
services. Local governance, therefore, includes the diverse objectives of
vibrant, living,
working, and environmentally preserved
self-governing communities.
Whatever may be their differences, these definitions
are clearly useful to summarise the salient characteristics of what local
government is and what it is expected to be. These are: (a) a given territory, population and
constitutional body; (b) a range of powers and functions and (c) autonomy
especially with respect to finance (Adeyeye, 2016: 11-12; Feldman and Goldrick,
1974). In similar vein, Tumini (2011:83) also identified the following
characteristics of local government as thus:
(a) Is
a sub-system playing its part within the larger national political system.
(b) Is
the lower level government in a unitary political system and lowest level
government in a federal three-level government.
(c) It
is usually elected/selected and representative.
(d) It
is established by law and has certain responsibilities
(e) It
includes a certain population living within the confines of a defined
territory.
(f) It
is a legal entity of its own and can sue and be sue.
The aforementioned definitions by various
scholars listed above clearly show that local government is a multi-dimensional
concept. The dimensions according to Ola
and Tonwe (2009:4-15) is as follows:
1. Social
Dimension
From
the social dimension, local government is basically a social institution. It is an organized social entity based on the
feeling of oneness. This emanates from
the fact that man is a social animal and must of necessity interact with other
people. Local government provides a platform for people in a locality to
express and fulfil their human urge to interact and in the process of
interaction, the feeling of convergence bring to the fore the commonality of
basic needs of the people in the neighbourhood of food, shelter, clothing,
water etc. It is those facets of their
feeling of oneness that are a binding force not only among themselves but also
between the local authority and the local people.
2. Economic
Dimension
Local
government is basically an economic institution with a foremost role to play in
promoting the economic well-being of the people of the locality. The economic dimension of the concept of
local government relates to its economic viability. Thus revenue generation becomes a primary
function of local government. A local
government that is not economically viable cannot do much to improve the
economic conditions of the people in the locality.
3. Geographic
Dimension
Local
government also has a geographical dimension.
From the perspective of a specific and defined territorial jurisdiction
over a particular human habitation, the local government may be conceptualized
in geographic terms. The geography of
local government which includes physical, demographic and economic features has
its impact on its policies, administration and law. These various features are of universal
character, hence may be conceptualized. The geographical dimension of local
government stems from the fact that among the inhabitants of a given area,
there is a consciousness that they are differentiated from the inhabitants of
other areas in the same country. This is
what is called the concept of neighbourhood which makes the inhabitants of an
area automatically aware of the interests which infringe upon them more
directly than upon others.
4 Legal
Dimension
Local
government is a legal institution in the sense that it is established by law of
a competent and higher authority. This
makes local government a miniature body-politic and a corporate body. In its former capacity, it is the agent of
state and, as such, represents public interest. In that capacity, it exercises a part of the
power of the state legally delegated to it within specified geographical boundaries.
5. Political
Dimension
Local
government is seen as a political institution.
It is basically, a political mechanism for governance at the grass root
level. It has a direct bearing on the nature of local government which is very
intriguing, giving rise to several questions. In this regard, it is important
to note the following:
(i)
Local government is not
like other higher levels of government. It does not share with them legal and
political sovereignty and does not usually derive authority directly from the
constitution.
(ii)
Local government does not
fall into the administrative hierarchy of the government. It is an
administrative outpost enjoying delegated authority. It is a level of
government established by law.
(iii)
Local government is not a
public enterprise/public utility institution with statutory foundation,
enjoying financial and operational autonomy.
(iv)
A body corporate with
legislative and executive arms along with territory jurisdiction, deriving
authority under law, may not actually qualify as a local government.
Conceptually, local government is an integrant of democracy. When local
government looses its democratic feature, it degenerates into local
administration. When local administration imbibes democratic character, it then
becomes local government. Without democratic norms there can be no
self-governing institutions.
6. Administrative
Dimension
Local
government has an administrative dimension.
It has its local bureaucracy like other higher levels of government that
coordinate the activities and the operation of day- to- day running of the
system. On the whole, it may be said that local government is basically an
organized social entity based on the feeling of oneness. In political terms it is concerned with the
governance of a specific local area, constituting a political sub-division of a
nation, state or other major political units.
In
performance of its functions it acts as the agent of the state. In other words, local government is an
integrant of the political mechanism for governance in a country. As body corporate and juristic person, it
represents a legal concept. The
geography, demography and economic factors of a local area, offer important
dimension in the conceptual articulation of local government (Ola and Tonwe,
2009).
THE THEORIES OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENT
According to
the Chamber 20th Century Dictionary quoted in (Adewale, 2008:45), a
theory can be defined as an explanation or system of anything; and exposition
of the abstract principle of science or art.
In his own contribution, Curry defines theory as a constructed of a set of sentences which consist entirely of true
statements about the subject matter under consideration. However, the truth of
any one of these statements is always relative to the whole theory. Therefore
the same statement may be true with respect to one theory, and not true with
respect to another. This is, in ordinary language, where statements such as
"He is a terrible person" cannot be judged to be true or false
without reference to some interpretation of who "He" is
and for that matter what a "terrible person" is under the theory
(Curry, No Date). Contributing further to the discourse, theory is seen as
follows:
- A
set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or
phenomena,
especially
one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to
make predictions about natural phenomena.
- The
branch of a science or art consisting of its explanatory statements,
accepted principles, and methods of analysis, as opposed to practice.
3. A set of
theorems that constitute a systematic view of a branch of mathematics.
4. Abstract
reasoning; speculation: a decision
based on experience rather than theory.
5. A belief
or principle that guides action or assists comprehension or judgment:
An
assumption based on limited information or knowledge; a conjecture (Theory, No Date, http://www.thefreedictionary.com/theory)
The significance of the definitions above is to
mainly to fish out the elementary basis of what theory is, and not to serve as
an academic exercise laden with agreement and disagreement. On this view, the
conclusion could be drawn that a theory is simply a larger conceptual framework
in which generalization find a place and theory are explained (Adewale, 2008).
In formulating a
theory of local government, it relevant to dig deep into the controversies
about the subject matter, such a theory will endeavour to answer the questions
why local government? How did it evolve? What is supposed to be doing? Why do
we not leave all the governmental power and administrative functions of the
state to the central government? Why do we need other levels below the national
and state government? (Ola, 2004:176).
There is no doubt that the
existence of universally accepted principle is a basic requirement in claiming
that there exists a theory in any discipline. While there is may be no
universally accepted set of functions and purposes of local government, some
partially or widely accepted, regionally or locally applicable functions and
purpose can be found and further examined (Ola and Tonwe, 2009:24). Therefore,
in venturing into the theoretical area of local government, the following important
schools or theory can be examined.
- THE
PRINCIPLE OF CITIZEN –CENTERED LOCAL GOVERNANCE:
According to Shah (2006:15-16), reforming the
institution of local governance requires agreement on basic principles. Three
principles are advanced to initiate such a discussion:
(a) Responsive governance. This principle aims for
governments to do the right things- that is, to deliver services consistent
with citizen preferences.
(b) Responsible governance. The government should
also do it right – that is, manage its fiscal resources prudently. It should
earn the trust of residents by working better and costing less and by managing
fiscal and social risks for the community. It should strive to improve the
quality and quantity of access to public services. To do so, it needs to
benchmark its performance with the best-performing local government.
(c) Accountable
governance. A local government should be accountable to its electorate. It
should adhere to appropriate safeguards to ensure that it serves the public
interest with integrity. Legal and institutional reforms may be needed to
enable local governments to deal with accountability between elections- reforms
such as a citizen’s character and a provision for recall of public officials.
A
framework of local government that embodies these principles according to Shah
(2006:15-16) is called citizen- centred governance. The distinguishing features
of citizen-centred governance are the following:
(g) Citizen
empowerment through a rights-based approach (direct democracy provisions, citizens’
charter)
(h) Bottom-up
accountability for results
(i) Evaluation
of government performance as the facilitator of a network of providers by
citizens as governors, taxpayers, and consumers of public services.
The framework emphasizes reforms that
strengthen the role of citizens as the principals and create incentives for
government agents to comply with their mandates.
The commitment problem may be mitigated by creating
citizen-centered local governance – by having direct democracy provisions,
introducing governing for results in government operations, and reforming the
structure of governance, thus shifting decision making closer to the people.
Direct democracy provisions require referenda on major issues and large
projects and citizens having the right to veto any legislation or government
program. A governing for results framework requires government accountability
to citizens for service delivery performance. Hence, citizens have a charter
defining their basic rights as well as rights of access to specific standards
of public services. Output-based intergovernmental transfers strengthen
compliance with such standards and strengthen accountability and citizen
empowerment (Shah, 2006:16).
- THE
MARXIST OR POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROACH.
In
Marxist analysis, the concept of democracy is examined within the purview of
class relation, which itself is shaped by nature of production relations in
society at any historical point in time. Karl Mark came out with a rebirth of
political economy, a political economy that scientifically studies in its
totality and takes into consideration the interconnection of social relations,
class conflict and the organic relationship between the sub-structural
(economy) and the superstructure (polity). He attempted a scientific understanding
of capitalism. He thus see political economy as the science for understanding
society in its entirely (Ihonvbere 1989:19; Momoh and Hundeyin 2008:43).
The theory and method of Marxian
political economy is anchored on the historical materialism and dialectical
materialism. Contrary to the belief of
Hegel and other idealist that consciousness is develop at the level of spirit
(mind)- that an individual’s consciousness is determine by idea on his/her
mind, Marx believes that it is the material existence of an individual that
determines his /her consciousness. Hence, while dialectical materialism
emphasizes the contradictory nature of society, male and female, day and night,
motion and rest, birth and death, consumption and excretion, positive and
negative, bourgeoisie and proletariat etc. As the basic of contradiction for
change and development in society (Momoh and Hundeyin 2008). This was further
explains by Cornforth (1968:53) when he depicted thus;
Dialectical materialism considers the
universe not as static, not as unchanging but as a continual process of
development. It considers this development, not as a smooth, continuous and
unbroken process but as a process in which faces of gradual evolutionary change
is interrupted by breaks in continuity, by sudden leap from one state to
another. And it seek for the explanation, the driving force, of this universe
movement, not on invention of the idealist fantasy but within material process themselves in the
inner contradictions, the opposite conflicting tendencies that are operation in
every process of nature and society.
This has been further argued that,
the dialectical nature of society is the basis of its law of motion of
development. In other words, the contradictions in society with the contents as the
transition from quantity to quality, the law of unity and conflict of opposites
and the law of the negation of the negation, as inherent in any mode of
production are the basic of societal change and development. Historical
materialism explains how human society has moved from through the various
epochal periods to date, history of human society from communalism to slavery,
feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and communism. It is therefore rooted in the
materialist conception of human history (Momoh and Hundeyin, 2008).
The above view point is further
collaborated with the position of Karl Marx quoted in (Adeyemo, 2004) in his
preface to a contribution to criticism of political economy when he depicted
thus:
...in
the social production of their existence, people inevitable enter into definite
relation which are independent of their will, namely relations of production
appropriate to given stage into the development of their internal force of
production. The totality of this relation of production constitute the economic
structure of society, the real foundation on which arises a legal and political
super structure and to what correspond definite form of social consciousness.
Marx went further that the mode of production of material life condition, the
general process of social political and intellectual life. It is not the
consciousness of the people that determines their existence, but is their
existence that determine their consciousness.
From the conceptual perspective,
political economic underscores the central importance of the mode of
production, and relation of production as a major casual factor in all social
phenomenon (Aluko 2004:139). According to Marx, the struggle for power between
social classes provides the driving force for politics because as Marx
understands political organisation, as some class must at any given time be
dominant. It will use its superior power to exploit the classes with less
power, and a state is a merely the apparatus of power which is uses for
exploitation, a committee for managing the common affairs of dominant class
(Sabine and Thorson, 1973:711).
In advance industrialised societies,
the capitalist mode of production dominates, giving rises to two major classes:
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. In Marxist analysis, the pattern of
distribution of incomes and wealth and changes in this distribution over times,
demonstrates the continued concentration of wealth in a small group within the
general population of society. The state is therefore an organ or instrument of
oppression by ruling class. It exists as a result of the irreconcilable
antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, contrary to the claims
of bourgeois political economy that the state exists as a neutral regulator and
unbiased moderator of antagonism of various interest in society. As Lenin
argues “politics is concentrated economics”. And state politics and class
control are the basis of hegemony and ideological construction of all class
divided societies (Abubakar and Hundeyin, 2008:46).
In applying the Marxist theory to the
analysis of local government administration, scholars in this school of thought
argue that, since local council represent or form part of the extension as an
administrative outpost of the state which presides over the affairs of
bourgeoisie at the local level. The state according to Marxist theory is
nothing but a committee for management of the affairs of the bourgeoisies.
Therefore, the proponents of this school of thought argue that, the same way
governmental institution are shaped by existing socio-economic structure and
relations at the central level, the local government also ensures that
capitalist relations are sustained and maintained at this level of governance.
DEMOCRATIC – PARTICIPATORY SCHOOL OF THOUGHT;
A
major theoretical exposition on which the existences of local government have
been justified was its ability to enhance grassroots democracy through popular
participation, effective accountability and political representation. These
three elements: (participation, accountability and representation)
incidentally, are the tripod on which an enduring democratic practice is
erected in any civilised society (Awofeso, 2011:161).
Participatory
democracy has been one of the earliest models in social sciences, particular in
political science since about 2000 BC (Alao, 2015, et al). The focal point of
this school of thought is the concept of democracy. It holds that local government function is to
bring about democracy and to afford opportunities for political participation
of the citizen as well as to educate and socialize them politically. It is for
this reason Ola (1988) refers to it as:
The seedbed of democracy in that it holds
out against the depredation of majoritarian tyranny and provides a chance for
local political pressure upon the central governments
This
view is widely held in contemporary Nigeria. Even at the official level, local
government has often been seen as an institution where democracy could be best
tested. Thus in a plural society, which has been largely divided along ethnic,
religious, social and attitudinal interests, there is need to create other
units of government which could meet the needs and aspirations of the
constituent units which make up the nation. This is exactly one of the
increasing roles of local government in Nigeria today (Awotokun, 2000:22).
According
to Awofeso (2011), many scholars have elaborately theorized on the relationship
between local government and democracy. Notable among them is John Stuart Mill,
who justified the existence of local government on three major grounds, each of
which has fundamental relevance to democratic practice.
The first, was the need for certain concern or
interests which are commonly shared by a section of the community, as against
those interests shared by the entire countrymen, to be managed and administered
by the people’s representatives who by no means also share the community
interests. This argument posits that there are certain desires or wants which
are of utmost priority to all community, and the provision of which can be best
be appreciated by their elected representatives who possibly understood them
most since they form part of the community. On the contrary, it is believed
that an ‘outsider’ such as a de-concentrated agent of the federal or even state
government, who does not share common aspiration with the community might
misinterpret the to the extent of presenting them inaccurately which can in
long run invite chaos (Awofeso, 2011).
The
second ground on which the existence of local government was justified by Mill
was that local government provides political education, which according to
Charles Wilson, is a function of participation. This implies that participation
in local government affords political education, and by extension, in the views
of Bentham, Mackenzie and Laski, constitutes a training ground for national
politicians (Awofeso, 2011). Thus, it is
believed that career politicians can use the local government as a platform for
acquiring political training and leadership qualities by first contesting as a
councillor at the local government area (Our Reporter, 2014).
From
another perspective, local government serves as instrumentalities for
grassroots citizens by engaging them in a political education and
participation. Most studies made of
previous parliament support the contention that local governments are good
training ground for recruiting the national political leaders. Local politics,
like politics at all levels, deals with conflict and conflict resolution.
Hence, at this grassroots level, citizens are called upon to learn to make
choices, to tolerate the views of minorities and respect others’ opinions, be
they in favour or contrary to their own (Ola and Tonwe, 2009:25). Along this
line Awofeso, (2011) depicted thus:
Local
government ...affords the opportunity for a large number of people who could
not participate in national politics at least, for one reason or the other, to
participate in politics at least, at the grassroots. Such level of
participation could be in form of election of their representatives, contesting
for election, occupying political or party offices and contributing directly or
indirectly to the process of decision making at the grassroots. The
relationship between participation and political education on one hand and
participation and training ground for future politicians on the other, is so
obvious. For one, participation enables the local politicians to be properly
groomed or socialized in the art of politics to face challenges at the centre
if they eventually opt for national politics. This way participation, it is
argued provides a training grounds for national leaders.
Looking at the school, one can
practically explain and relates it to Nigeria Experience. In February, 1997, June 1999-June 2002, and
27th March – 2004 30th March, 2007, local government
elections was conducted throughout the states of the federation, the rate at
which people turnout and participated passively greatly demonstrated that
democracy has really been brought to the grassroots as well as active
participation of people, this was accessed to by the mass turn out during the
election (Adeyemo, 2010). From another perspective, local government, motivate
the citizen by engaging him in political education and political education. Studies
that have been made of previous services on local government go to support the
contention that local governments are good recruiting ground for upper level of
government and hence a source for greater participation (Ola and Tonwe,
2009:25). The diagram below shows
states where election has been conducted from 1999 to 2019.
Table 1: States’
Records of Election into Local Government Councils since the Inception of 4th
Republic (1999)
|
|
State
|
Years Elections Were Conducted
|
No. of Times Elections were Conducted
|
|
1
|
Anambra
|
2013, 2017
|
2
|
|
2
|
Ebonyi
|
2004, 2010, *2013, 2017
|
4
|
|
3
|
Oyo
|
2004, 2007, 2018
|
3
|
|
4
|
Osun
|
2004, 2007, 2018
|
3
|
|
5
|
Ondo
|
2004, *2007, 2016, 2018
|
4
|
|
6
|
Ekiti
|
2004, 2009, 2015, 2018
|
4
|
|
7
|
Ogun
|
2004, 2007, 2012, 2016
|
4
|
|
8
|
Kwara
|
2004, 2007, 2012, 2017
|
4
|
|
9
|
Lagos
|
2004, 2008, 2012, 2017
|
4
|
|
10
|
Akwa Ibom
|
2004, 2008, 2012, 2017
|
4
|
|
11
|
Cross River
|
2004, 2010, 2013, 2017
|
4
|
|
12
|
Edo
|
2004, *2007, 2013, 2018
|
4
|
|
13
|
Abia
|
2004, 2008, 2016
|
3
|
|
14
|
Bayelsa
|
2004, *2010, 2017, 2019
|
4
|
|
15
|
Rivers
|
2004, 2011, 2015, 2018
|
4
|
|
16
|
Delta
|
2004, *2008, 2014, 2018
|
4
|
|
17
|
Imo
|
2004, *2008, 2018
|
3
|
|
18
|
Benue
|
2004, 2007, 2012, 2017
|
4
|
|
19
|
Enugu
|
2004, 2007, 2011, 2013, 2017
|
5
|
|
20
|
Nasarawa
|
2004, 2009, 2014, 2018
|
4
|
|
21
|
Kano
|
2004, 2007, 2009, 2014, 2018
|
5
|
|
22
|
Kastina
|
2004, 2010, 2018
|
3
|
|
23
|
Sokoto
|
2004, 2008, 2011, 2016
|
4
|
|
24
|
Kebbi
|
2004, 2008, 2012, 2017
|
4
|
|
25
|
Kogi
|
2004, 2008, 2013
|
3
|
|
26
|
Taraba
|
2004, 2007, 2012, 2017
|
4
|
|
27
|
Zamfara
|
2004, 2012
|
2
|
|
28
|
Bauchi
|
2004, 2008, 2018
|
3
|
|
29
|
Yobe
|
2004, 2009, 2013, 2017
|
4
|
|
30
|
Borno
|
2004, 2007
|
2
|
|
31
|
Plateau
|
2004, 2008, 2014, 2018
|
4
|
|
32
|
Kaduna
|
2004, 2012, 2018
|
3
|
|
33
|
Jigawa
|
2004, 2011, 2014, 2017
|
4
|
|
34
|
Niger
|
2004, 2008, 2011, 2016
|
4
|
|
35
|
Adamawa
|
2004, 2008, 2012, 2016
|
4
|
|
36
|
Gombe
|
2004, 2013, 2017
|
3
|
|
37
|
Abuja
|
2004, 2007, 2010, 2013, 2016
|
5
|
*Years in which LG elections were held but councils later dissolved, or
elections nullified
Source:
Adeyemi (2019)
More
over, the creation of local government areas especially the December, 1996
exercise in Nigeria, gave the citizen wide range of opportunities to per take
in the gains of political education and mobilization inherent in the exercise
of local government as various politicians graduated from local levels into
higher level of government such as State House of Assembly, House of
Representative and House of Senate (Adeyemo, 2010). Hence, Nigerian local
government areas have thus become avenue for recruiting and nursing political leaders.
This practical experience is not only peculiar to Nigeria; it also happens in
advance democracies such as Britain, Canada and United States. For example in Britain, the study carried out
in 1964 by David Butler at the year general election shows that 53% of Labour
number of parliament and 45% of the defeated Labour party parliamentary
candidates had been local government councillors.
The third ground on which the
existence of local government was justified by Mill was that it enhances
accountability. Local officials (Councillors and Chairmen inclusive) are
susceptible to local control and easily held accountable for their action while
in office by local voter because of the short lines of communication that exist
between them, and the very fact that local officials depend on the electorate
support to retain their offices (Awofeso, 2011).
The people’s participation in
government brings about accountability. Indeed, participation and
accountability are two sides of the same coin and they help strengthen a
democratic system. Accountability is relevant because it raises moral questions
about power and its purpose in society, why it should be shared and it serves
the need of political control (Ighodalo, 2009:47).
The logic behind this is that
people at the locality are in better position to exercise more effective
control check or control over their representatives who are part and parcel of them,
as against agents of national government who are likely to be more remote,
responsible and accountable to national government instead of the local people
(Awofeso, 2011).
Table 2.
Experience in Local Government of Member of the Italian Parliament, 1953
|
Member
|
Total
given information
|
Regional
|
Province
|
Communal
|
Total
|
%
|
|
Deputies
|
434
|
9
|
41
|
208
|
258
|
59%
|
|
Senators
|
243
|
3
|
41
|
121
|
165
|
68%
|
Source: Ola and Tonwe (2009:26).
Further, the role of local
government as a platform for political mobilisation of the citizens in bringing
them close to public affairs is to be appreciated in terms of the opportunities
it creates for political activity and political social interaction. Such
political activities as turning out to vote in elections, election or selection
to local government committees and boards, pressure group and interest group
activities and participation, public debate and discussion of political issues,
all are inherent in local government (Ola and Tonwe, 2009). Therefore, local
government must continue to promote and encourages political participation and
political education and form a buttress for democracy. Hence, the core of the
argument of the democratic-participatory school of thought is that local
government must continue to be a buttress of democracy. To do this, it must
continue to inculcate these ideals of democracy and participation on the
citizen
EFFICIENCY – SERVICES SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
A good number of scholars have
criticized the democratic and participatory role stressed by the democratic
participatory school. To them, the
essential function of local government is not the bringing about democracy, nor
is it the provision of a base for political participation and political
education. According to them, local
government exists to provide services and it must be judged by it success in
providing services up to the standard measured by a national inspectorate (Ola,
2004). It is further argued that, local
government because of its closeness to an area can provide certain services far
more efficiently and effectively than the National government. J.S. Mill also
provides a strong case for local government on the grounds that it was the most
efficient agent for providing those services that are essentially local. It is on this note that Jim Sharpe has
suggested that the efficient performance of those services is so compelling
that if local government did not exist, something else would have to be created
in its place (Ola and Tonwe, 2009:27). Thus, to this school of thought, the
main functional role of local government is to perform effectively and
efficiently, the local responsibilities allocated to it at highest efficient.
As a structure very close to the locally, local councils should serve as
essential instrument for the performance of basic services, which could be best
administer locally based on the intimate knowledge of needs, conditions, and
peculiarities of the areas concerned. Among these are chieftaincy, marriage,
markets, local schools, primary health care and refuse disposal (Our Reporter,
2014).
The
efficiency school of thought locate the rationale for local government in the provision of
special services and argues that while some services such as defence and
external affairs need to be provided by central government for the purposes of
maintaining common national standards or because they are of immediate or direct interest to
ordinary citizen, and while regional planning for socio-economic development
and similar services are best provided at the state level, some services such as
local roads, housing, water supply, health services, education, agricultural
services are better provided by local government (Fatile, et al, 2013:198).
In
Nigeria for example, the 1976 local government reform also acknowledged this
service essence of local government administration. This recommendation
according to Akhaine (2009:179) is as follows:
- To
make appropriate services and development activities responsive to local
wishes and initiatives by devolving or delegating them to local
representative bodies.
- To
facilitates the exercise of democratic self-government close to the
grassroots of our society and encourage initiatives and leadership
potentials.
- Mobilising
of human material resources through the involvement of members of the
public in their local development and
- To
provide a two way channel of communication between local communities and
government (both state and federal).
Hence, Nigeria’s experience in local
government administration, whether in military regimes or in democratic era,
has clearly shows that local government faces serious challenges in carrying
out their mandate in promoting development and provides essential services to
the rural dwellers. Sadly, local government which is statutorily established to
be the closest tier of government to the people is not doing its bidding
coupled with the fact that resident population in it is denied the benefits of
its existence. The failure of the local governments in the area of services
delivery has made the citizens to lose their trust in this level of governance
(Adeyemi, 2013).
This
school of thought according to Fatile, et al, (2013), justify the existence of
the local government on the ground that it is an efficient agent for providing
services that are local in character. They argue that because of its closeness
to an area, the local government can provide certain services far more
efficiently than the central government. This school believes that the local
government is a veritable instrument for efficient service delivery at the
grassroots.
DEVELOPMENTAL SCHOOL OF
THOUGHT
The examination of the above schools
thought above reveal that, these two schools have concerned themselves with
local government in developed Western democracies. It is no surprise that the
viewpoints have had their advocates in Western democratic nations where they
had their origin and had perhaps been a subject of controversy more than in
other places. Nevertheless, their consideration, as well as their application,
has not been limited to Western democratic countries of the world. But in these
parts too, there has been a new trend in the controversy. Functionally, local
government has been looked upon to perform certain responsibilities which
theoretically can be distinguished from either of the schools of thought so far
discussed (Ola and Tonwe, 2009). As
World Bank quoted in (Abubakar, 1993:27-27) acknowledged the importance of
local government as an agent of development as thus:
... provides
the flexibility needed for proper integration and timing of activities, and for
the modification of programs in response to changing conditions. Community
involvement process, is essential to a sustained development process, is
greatly facilitated by local rather than centralised control. One particular
advantages is that the problem of community, as perceived by its residents and
those imputed by local officials tend to be more easily reconciled.
Along
this line, Ola and Tonwe (2009) observe that a United Nation expert who was of
Local Government Section of the Division for Public Administration of United
Nation Department of Economics and Social Affairs, contributing to this debate,
made the point that local government in developing countries areas should be
concerned with the following:
- Decongesting
government at the centre, thereby freeing national leaders from onerous
details and unnecessary involvement in local issues.
- Increasing
people’s understanding and economic development
- Making
programmes to foster social and economic betterment at the local level
more realistic and lasting.
- Training
people in the art of self-government
- Strengthening
national unity.
One of the major problems of
developing nations is to achieve a reasonable level of political integration in
societies that are cultural plural and in many cases cultural diffuse. Local sentiments and local attachment are
very strong and most time stronger than national ones. In some cases, the
national consciousness is just beginning to emerge and so has to be built up
and sustained. Political and other problems in such developing appear to be
more urgent and apparent at the national level than at local level (Ola and
Tonwe, 2009) .The argument can thus be made that, in these countries; more
emphasis must continue to be placed on national problems until the countries
have achieved a reasonable level of national integration. In this case
achievement of the very vital national integration must become a focus to which
local government direct a good portion of its contribution (Ola and Tonwe 2009).
According
to Abubakar (1993:26), one of the major shortcomings of earlier development
efforts in most countries of the Third World was the over-concentration of the
process- the top down approach. Unsuccessful results from this approach has
brought about rethinking which eventually manifested in need for
decentralisation of both structure (machinery) and process of development .
This school sees local government as
a system that can bring about political integration in developing societies
that are ethnically plural and diffuse. Where local sentiment and local
attachment are very strong, local government can use the positively to advance
national growth (Ola 2004:177). At the expense of over-stressing it local
peculiarities, local government then becomes an instrument for national awareness
and national consciousness. It is able to stimulate initiative encourage drive
and experimentation, identity available local skills, interest and abilities
and sees or get them developed in the general interest (Ola, 2004).
Table 3: Possible Contribution of Local Government to
Development Process
|
S/N
|
Political
Integration/Nation Building
|
Social
Development
|
Economic
Growth
|
|
1
|
Unity through
opportunity for political participation
|
Better access to and
use of information in respect to service location and effective maintenance
capabilities
|
Local institutions in
a bottom-up strategy
|
|
2
|
Training in
citizenship and political leadership
|
Easier to tap the
people’s knowledge, initiatives and enthusiasm for service delivery
|
Local institutions
historically played a critical role in the agricultural and overall
transformation of today’s developed
countries
|
|
3
|
Promotion of
accountable governance
|
Integration of the
development activities of central and local governments at planning and
execution stages made more feasible by responsible local governments
|
Local government are
today still playing very important role in the economics development of both
socialist and capitalist countries
|
|
4
|
Promote claim-making
on central government
|
Enable individuals and
communities to make choices about social service they are willing to pay for
|
Local governments have
a great potential in raising agricultural and industrial productivity in Less
Developed Countries in the following areas:
(a)
Collective
action in managing scarce resources- land, soil, water, etc
(b)
Assisting
cooperative in the rural areas and in the informal sector in the urban areas
to organise themselves for effective economics and political action.
(c)
Reduction
of waste by central government dominated project.
(d)
Presenting
a wide opportunity for experimentation/ innovation with diverse project
/management possibilities
(e)
Promoting
health competition for cooperation among communities
|
|
5
|
Reduce social
discrimination through the empowerment of minorities
|
|
|
Source:
Abubakar (1993:28-29)
Developing
countries have come to appreciate the fact that the only meaningful and
sustainable form of development is that which is endogenous, that is
development which emanates from the will and desire of the people rather than
the one impose from outside (exogenous development), and that the more superior
developmental approach is the “bottom up” rather than the “top-down” or
directive approach (Fatile, et al, 2013).
The views of these schools and any
others in whatever language are not contradictory, but they are rather
complementary. Therefore, when both sets of school are integrated, a functional
approach emerges. This approach assesses the efficiency (total achievement or
objectives) of local government as a tool of developmental process (Ola and
Tonwe, 2009:34)
This functional approach can be put
under two major criteria the first one is called “general category” and the
second the “developmental category”. The major functional items in the general
category reflecting the democratic-participatory and the efficiency – services
school are:
- Democratic
ideals
- Political
participation
- Protective
services
- Infrastructural
services
Under
the development category we can sum up the following functional objectives:
- National
integration
- Social
and economic development
- Man
power resources development.
The
argument is that local government, especially in the developing world can be
critically looked at by employing the above functional criteria.
Under
general category, democratic ideals and political participation, local
government serves as a training ground not only for other levels of political
involvement, but also for political tolerance, an appreciation of and
consideration for other’s view points. The democratic aspect also implies the
concept of equality of individuals by giving everyone of age the right to vote,
liberty in form of freedom of speech and freedom of action and selection are
also implicit (Ola and Tonwe, 2009: 35).
The
protective and infrastructural services include police, fire-fighting, night-guard
and night patrol systems, beach patrols and forest guarding, health facilities,
water supply, sewage street care, garbage collection, public transit. In the
development category, local government can immensely promote national
integration and national consciousness. The socio-economic development aspects
include the provision of sanitary facilities, latrines, public health centres
and incinerators. It includes the provision of factories and varying types of
business, project and Agricultural projects. With regards to manpower resources
development, this will concentrate very squarely on what active use has been
made of education at the various level, i.e how much involvement the local
government has ensured, in face of the growing need for education in all
countries of the developing world. (Ola and Towne, 2009).
CONCLUSION
This study examines the various theories and conceptual definitions of
Local government system. It analysed the views of
different scholars or school of thought on the subject matter in order to
understand the functional and institutional relevance of this level of
governance in the political system of the world at large. Therefore, local
government system whether in developed or developing countries is a potential
instrument in mobilizing the people at the grassroots for sustainable
development. Local government is in best position than the national government
to stimulate initiatives, inculcate that feeling of national consciousness,
encourage drive and experimentation in people and bring development, democratic
dividend, and efficient and effective service delivery to the people at the
grassroots.
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